Discourse markers in writing
Discourse markers are words and expressions which help to structure spoken exchanges and written text (e.g. first of all, on the other hand, in any case, to sum up). English has a very large number of these. Some are used in all kinds of discourse, some mostly in formal writing, and others mainly in informal speech. Those that are most common in writing are discussed here; for discourse markers in speech, (see here). Most discourse markers are adverbs or adverbial expressions; some are conjunctions. For differences in punctuation and other points, (see here).
Discourse markers can communicate several things:
- ‘What am I talking about?’ Discourse markers can introduce or clarify a topic, and show divisions and changes of topic.
- ‘What am I doing?’ They can show the type of communication that is going on.
- attitude They can show a writer’s attitude to what he or she is saying, or to the reader’s expectations.
What am I talking about?
Some discourse markers say what a writer is about to focus on, and may show a link with previous discussion. Others show subdivisions and changes of topic.
focusing
with reference to; regarding; as regards; as far as … is/are concerned
- With reference to your letter of 17 March, I am pleased to inform you …
- Regarding the proposal to reinvest all profits, it was felt that further discussion was needed.
- As regards other aspects of social policy, the government of the day was under great pressure to improve health care.
- As far as heart disease is concerned, saturated fats are considered to be a principal danger.
subdividing
first of all; firstly, secondly, etc; in the first place; before turning to; lastly; finally
- First of all, it is important to distinguish two main types of problem. Secondly, solutions to both need to be evaluated.
- Before turning to the question of finance, the directors discussed minimum staffing levels.
- Finally, it is appropriate to mention the contribution of his family to his success.
new subject
turning now to …
- Turning now to his years in America, we will trace his gradual acceptance by the scientific establishment.
returning to previous subject
to return to the previous point
- To return to the previous point, it would be a mistake to overlook the basic need for research.
summing up
in conclusion; to sum up; briefly; in short
- In conclusion / To sum up, it seems clear that none of the factors already discussed contributed to the spread of the epidemic.
- Briefly, three senators have been accused of fraud, bribery and tax evasion in the past three years, but they have all been cleared of these charges by other senators.
- In short, the decision to invade was a disastrous error of judgement.
What am I doing?
Some discourse markers make it clear what kind of communication is going on.
generalising and exceptions
on the whole; to a great extent; to some extent; in general; in all/most/many/some cases; broadly speaking; apart from; except for
- On the whole / In general, people like to help others.
- On the whole / In general, the higher an individual is in the social strata the less likely he or she is to be arrested, prosecuted and (if prosecuted) found guilty.
- In some cases, an unhappy childhood can lead to criminal behaviour.
- To some extent, people’s religious views tend to reflect those of their parents.
- Broadly speaking, trees can be divided into two groups: evergreen and deciduous.
- Central European languages, except for / apart from Hungarian, are related to each other.
showing a logical or causal connection
consequently; therefore; as a result; so; then
- Atmospheric pressure is lower at altitude. Consequently, climbers can find it difficult to get enough oxygen.
- Unfortunately, your examination marks did not reach the required standard. Therefore we are unable to offer you a place.
- His first novel was a remarkable success. As a result, he was offered a contract to write a sequel.
showing similarity
similarly; in the same way; just as
- Russia relies on its grain harvests to feed its population. Similarly / In the same way, India and China are dependent on rice.
- Just as some children have imaginary friends, others invent complicated past events that never happened.
showing a contrast
nevertheless; nonetheless; despite this/that; yet; however; in spite of this/that
- The Greeks and Romans had no symbol for zero. Nevertheless/Nonetheless, they made remarkable progress in mathematics.
- Their father died when they were small. In spite of that / Despite that, they had a happy childhood.
- England has occasional heavy snowfalls in January and February. However, most winters are relatively mild.
balancing contrasting points
on the one hand; whereas; while; on the other hand
- On the one hand, we need to reduce costs. On the other hand, investment in research is a crucial priority.
- Arranged marriages are common in many Middle Eastern countries. In the West, on the other hand, they are unusual. (not
… on the contrary, they are unusual.(see here) - He liked the mountains, whereas/while his wife preferred the sea.
persuading
after all (see here)
- It is scarcely surprising that he chose a military career. After all, his father and both his grandfathers were professional soldiers.
contradicting
on the contrary; quite the opposite
- The violin is not easy to play well. On the contrary, it is one of the most challenging instruments.
- Do not be afraid that people will look down on you because of your regional accent. Quite the opposite, in some professions your accent may be your most interesting and valuable possession.
concession
it is true (that); certainly; granted; if; may; of course
counter-argument
nevertheless; nonetheless; however; even so; but; still; all the same
These expressions are often used in a three-stage argument structure:
-
We say something that points in a certain direction.
-
We agree (the concession) that there are facts that point in the other direction.
-
But we finish (the counter-argument) by going back to the original position.
- … cannot agree with colonialism. It is true that the British may have done some good in India. Even so, colonialism is basically evil.
- He was incapable of lasting relationships with women. Certainly, several women loved him, and he was married twice. All the same, the women closest to him were invariably deeply unhappy.
- Very few people understood Einstein’s theory. Of course, everybody had heard of him, and a fair number of people knew the word ‘relativity’. But hardly anybody could tell you what he had actually said.
- His poetry was popular, and, if difficult to understand, nonetheless had a good deal of charm.
Note the use of certainly and of course in the above Phrases. When they are used in this way, an experienced reader knows that they will be followed by but, all the same or a similar expression.
adding
moreover; furthermore; further; in addition; what is more; also; besides
- Air travel is tiring. Moreover/Furthermore, it is generally uncomfortable and expensive.
- The school was old and badly heated, and classes were large. In addition, her teacher was an elderly lady who was simply counting the days till her retirement.
- … pleasant to drive and cheap to run. What is more, it is one of the most reliable small cars on the market.
- Besides his energy and enthusiasm, I was also attracted by his sense of humour.
giving examples
e.g.; in particular; for instance; for example
- For many artists of the period, e.g. Holbein or Cranach, painting was a family business.
- He was not a very sociable person. In particular, he hated having to talk to strangers at parties.
- Some of those groups, for instance / for example the Beatles or the Rolling Stones, became fabulously wealthy.
Attitude
Some discourse markers express the writer’s attitude to what he/she is saying, or modify what is being said to make the communication more effective.
showing writer’s attitude
no doubt; honestly
- The government, no doubt for excellent reasons, has reduced unemployment benefit. (No doubt is often ironic: the writer may not be at all sure that the reasons are good.)
- This student has worked hard, but I honestly do not feel able to recommend her for a scholarship.
making things clear
that is to say; in other words
- We may be human, but that does not make us different from similar species. That is to say, we share many of the instincts of other territorial mammals.
- The colonial powers gave great importance to economic advantage. In other words, they wanted to make as much money as they could out of the colonies.
softening and correcting
in my view/opinion; apparently; so to speak; that is to say; more or less; really; at least; actually
- His work has been savagely criticised. In my view, however, the majority of these criticisms are unfounded.
- He was not in fact very efficient. That is to say, he not always very good at organising his work. At least, that was what his associates repeatedly said.
- The government did not keep all of its promises, though actually, it did keep quite a number of the less expensive ones.
dismissing what was said before
in any case
This expression means ‘What was said before doesn’t matter – this is the real point.’
- Historians differ regarding the ultimate causes of the First World War. In any case, it is clear that British and German expansionism played a crucial role.
referring to the hearer’s/reader’s expectations
in fact; actually
These expressions introduce information that will contradict (usually) or perhaps confirm what the hearer or reader thinks.
- It is generally believed that Marquez died in the civil war. In fact / Actually, recent research shows that he survived and fled to Bolivia, where …
Reporting verbs showing attitude
Some reporting verbs can show the writer’s attitude to what is being reported. Suggest and imply make it clear that he/she is not reporting definite facts. Claim often throws doubt on what follows.
- These findings suggest/imply that a cure for the common cold may be close.
- The Minister claims that the new working practices will increase efficiency by 35%.
Allege is common in reports of unproved criminal accusations.
- It is alleged that, during the night of June 17th, Hawkins broke into the factory.