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Academic writing

The writing found in academic journals and similar contexts (for example research reports, theoretical discussion and debate, historical accounts) is normally formal in tone, and follows the conventions of formal writing discussed in other parts of this Section. In particular:

Vocabulary​

Informal wording is usually avoided. Contractions are not used, and ‘general-purpose’ words like do, have and get are replaced by more specific terminology.

  • Further research will be carried out. (better than … will be done)
  • The team experienced a number of problems. (better than … had a lot of problems)
  • Early investigators obtained ambiguous results. (better than … got ambiguous results)

Impersonal writing​

Academic writing is most often impersonal, so for example the authors or researchers may not often appear as subjects of sentences.

  • This report questions the conclusions of earlier researchers. (rather than We question …)

Passives are common.

  • All well-dated Neanderthal sites have been found to be at least 39,000 years old.

Impersonal structures with it are frequently used.

  • It is clear that …
  • It is likely that …
  • It is important to …

And academic writers may avoid presenting over-definite conclusions, by using verbs such as may, suggest, or adjectives such as possible, arguable.

  • Preliminary results suggest that …
  • It is possible that …

Nominalisation​

Nominalisation (expressing actions by nouns, (see here) can help to make writing impersonal.

  • The discovery of penicillin transformed the treatment of bacterial infections. (rather than When Fleming discovered penicillin …)
  • Chemical analysis of their bones shows that their diets differed from those of modern humans.

Pre- and post-modifiers​

Complex noun phrases may be used to package information, with several pre-modifiers and/or post-modifiers ( (see here).

  • accelerating climate change
  • important survival information
  • a clear evolutionary pathway
  • ongoing hydrothermal activity
  • the divergence of the species from its apelike cousins
  • laws of motion and gravitation that connected everything in the cosmos
  • evidence for the way in which mirror cells work
  • brain areas associated with reward
  • chemical reactions between rock and water

Discourse markers​

Academic writers use discourse markers (see here) to make the structure of their text clear, for instance by signalling points which add to or contrast with what has come before.

  • In addition, MRI scans consistently showed tissue abnormalities.
  • These results, however, must be regarded as provisional pending further investigation.

Note the use of furthermore and what is more to strengthen an argument. Compare:

  • Participants completed tests of endurance. In addition, their lung capacity was measured. (simply adding information)
  • A clear relationship was found between lung capacity and endurance. Furthermore / What is more, training which increased endurance was shown to have a positive effect on lung capacity. (adding another piece of evidence for the writer’s claims)

Note also the use of on the other hand to emphasise a contrast. Compare:

  • Several studies have provided evidence that playing classical music to cows increases their milk yield. However, no similar studies to date have been carried out on goats. (a different point, but not an emphatic contrast)
  • Playing classical music to cows has been shown to increase their milk production. Rock music, on the other hand, is found to result in significantly reduced yields. (a more emphatic contrast)

Collocations and formulaic language​

Academic writing involves two kinds of formulaic language (see here). One type consists of the fixed expressions that are commonly used in the particular area of study concerned, and which anyone writing academic material in that area needs to be familiar with.

  • to take a blood sample (medicine)
  • to draw out / trace out a floor plan (architecture)
  • communicative competence (linguistics)

The other kind of fixed expressions are those that are used, in any subject of study, when discussing research, evaluating evidence, developing an argument, agreeing and disagreeing with published views, and so on. A few examples:

  • to conduct / carry out research
  • to compile/analyse/present data
  • to raise an issue
  • to put forward / question / take issue with / challenge / contest / dismiss: a view / an argument / a theory / a hypothesis / a claim
  • to make/reject a claim / an assumption
  • to claim that …
  • to assert that …
  • to suggest that …
  • to draw a conclusion
  • to prove/disprove
  • solid theoretical reasoning
  • proof/evidence for/that
  • powerful/persuasive/compelling evidence
  • sound empirical evidence
  • lack of evidence
  • little evidence for …
  • research findings
  • a strong implication
  • a logical conclusion
  • on both theoretical and practical grounds
  • based on unproved hypotheses
  • broad agreement
  • to take something into account

English, like any language, contains a very large number of formulaic expressions. The most important thing for students of academic writing is to note, and learn, those that are commonly used for their subject matter, but to understand that they cannot realistically expect to master all of the formulaic vocabulary of English in a limited time.