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Other varieties of English

The British and American standards are historically the most influential varieties, but of course Britain and the US do not own the English language. In a number of countries round the world, English is either a national language or an important second language. These countries have their own varieties of English, which broadly speaking fall into two groups.

Native-speaker varieties​

In countries such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, English arrived with the early British colonists, and in time became the language, or one of the languages, of the new nation. In the first three of these countries English is the mother tongue of a large part of the population. (South Africa is a different case: see below.) Over the years these varieties have developed in their own ways, as has British English, so that distinct differences have grown up between them. The differences are most noticeable in pronunciation, but each variety has a good deal of home-grown vocabulary, as well as some grammatical features of its own. Local vocabulary and grammar show up especially in informal speech; more formal speech is closer to the written standards, which themselves are strongly influenced by British and American models.

Non-native varieties​

In many countries, while English is not the mother tongue of most of the population, it serves as an important additional language. The historical or practical reasons for this vary, as does the exact role of English in these countries. In many cases, but not all, it has some official status. Some of these varieties are relatively new; others, like Indian English, have a long history. Their origins vary. Indian and Singapore-Malaysian English, for example, have developed out of British English; African lingua franca English is also British-based; the Philippines variety has its source in American English; Fijian English owes much of its character to Australian / New Zealand English.

All such varieties show the influence of other regional languages: when people habitually use two or more forms of speech, each one affects the grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation of the other(s). Common simplifications and regularisations typical of ‘learner English’ may also become fixed in one variety or another: for example countable uses of nouns which are uncountable in the source languages (furnitures), dropping of grammatical endings (three brother, she think), merging of which and who (the people which were there), reduction of tense distinctions (they arrive yesterday), omission of be (he the driver, they studying), and the use of is it? or isn’t it? as universal question tags (You’re tired, is it?).

In such multilingual situations, there are often great variations in the kind of English used, so that it is not possible to give a straightforward description of, say, Indian, Malaysian or Jamaican English. More accomplished speakers will generally adopt a variety that is relatively close to a British, American or other national standard with some local colouring, while others, like language learners the world over, may speak a far less fluent and more basic kind of English. In certain countries something like a national standard has developed, though the definition of ‘standard’ is more controversial than in the case of a native-speaker variety.

Notes on some varieties​

Australian and New Zealand English​

These varieties are similar in many ways to British English, but each naturally has a good deal of regional vocabulary. Australian English has taken many words for natural features from the Aboriginal languages of Australia: for example kangaroo, billabong (a pool or a tributary of a river), dingo (a wild dog), mulga (a tree, wilderness). Similarly, New Zealand English has incorporated words from the indigenous language Maori: for example pukeku and takahe (names of birds), mana (power, honour). Both Australian and New Zealand English have a rich store of informal and slang words and expressions, many of them shared between the two varieties – for instance bludger (a lazy person), dinkum (genuine), bonzer (excellent), my shout (my turn to buy the drinks). The few grammatical differences from British English include a preference for singular verbs with group nouns, where British English might use a plural verb (The team is confident of winning); the New Zealand use of Will I …? in questions like Will I call back later?, where British English has Shall I …?; and conversational she instead of it, as in She’ll be right (It will be OK). Informal Australian English frequently shortens nouns and adds an -ie or -o suffix: for example barbie (barbeque), mushie (mushroom), sunnies (sunglasses), brekkie (breakfast), Tassie (Tasmania), arvo (afternoon). Australian and New Zealand pronunciation have many common features, and are closer to British than to American English. Standard written English is almost identical with the British standard, regional vocabulary aside. As with other varieties, however, there is growing influence from American English.

Canadian English​

Canadian English is in some ways midway between the British and American varieties. The written standard is very close to that of British English, but American spellings are quite common. Informal speech has a distinctly American flavour, and pronunciation is fairly close to that of the northern United States. Canadian vocabulary naturally includes words reflecting the local environment and culture, many of them taken from the native American languages spoken in Canada: for instance husky, moose, toboggan, anorak, kayak. French, the mother tongue of around one third of Canadians, has also given words to Canadian English vocabulary, e.g. cache (a hiding place).

South African English​

English is the lingua franca of South Africa, but it is only one of eleven official languages. It is spoken as a mother tongue by about 10% of the population, and in this form it is the language primarily associated with education and social prestige. The written standard is similar to that of British English. Mother-tongue spoken English is heavily influenced both by Afrikaans (a descendant of the language of the early Dutch settlers) and by the African languages of the region; it also reflects the mixed social and geographical origins of the British settlers. Words derived from Afrikaans include nogal (what is more), sommer (simply, for no specific reason), trek, padkos (food for a journey), dwaal (a reverie or state of confusion), braai (barbecue). Examples of words taken from African languages are indaba (discussion, meeting, gathering), bonsella (bonus, free gift), babalaas (hung over). Some words that have died out in British English have stayed in South Africa: for example robot (traffic light), geyser (boiler). Grammatical features of informal South African English include some non-standard word order (e.g. I’ll come and see you tomorrow rather) and the use of hey as a question tag (You know his name, hey?). Standard pronunciation, originally that of the educated English-speaker, may be changing now that political developments have brought senior black African speakers into positions of influence; at the same time, however, upwardly mobile young black speakers are tending to take the British-flavoured standard pronunciation as a target.

Native speakers of English are massively outnumbered by speakers of the non-native English which is used as a lingua franca across the region. This varies greatly from one social and ethnic group to another, and is very heavily influenced in its grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation by the mother-tongues of its speakers. However, this too may be developing a standard form: there was a strong move a decade or so ago to recognize black South African English as ‘the standard’.

Caribbean English​

The English of Caribbean countries like Jamaica developed out of pidgin (mixed) languages that grew up during the slave trade. Speakers at one end of the social/educational spectrum are likely to use a British or American standard with a few regional characteristics. At the other extreme, Caribbean dialects (‘creoles’) are very different indeed from the standard varieties. In Jamaican Creole, for example, the equivalent of I go is mi guo, I am going is mi de guo, I went is mi bin guo and I was going is mi bin de guo.

Indian English​

English is an associate official language in India, alongside Hindi, the official language. As a lingua franca in a country with over 700 different languages, English has enormous administrative, political and cultural importance and very many speakers. Command of the language ranges from basic to native-speaker-like. Standard British English with an RP accent has traditionally enjoyed high prestige, and is fostered by private English-medium schools. However, very many varieties of English co-exist in India, with differences arising from regional, social, linguistic and other factors. Common features of pronunciation and grammar which are regarded by some educated Indians as mistakes are seen by others as characteristics of an emerging Indian standard. Grammatical differences from British and American English include tense use and the use of progressive forms: I am here since last week; I am seeing her often; We have been there five years ago; He is doing it yesterday; She is having two children. Questions and negatives may be structured differently: Who you are wishing to speak to?; You not like curry? Article use varies: articles may be dropped, and one is often used rather than a/an: We are needing one new car. Repetition may be used for emphasis: I am having small, small problem. Typical question-tags are Yes?, No? and Isn’t it?

The vocabulary of Indian English includes many words taken from modern and classical Indian languages, some of which have made their way into general English outside India, for example bungalow, cheetah, yoga, nirvana. Some English words are special to Indian English, for example headbath (shampoo), issueless (having no children), prepone (the opposite of postpone), teacheress. Others are current in India although they are no longer used elsewhere, for example needful, thrice (three times), miscreant (criminal).

Indian pronunciation of English is generally syllable-timed rather than stress-timed.

Singapore and Malaysian English​

These varieties have a good deal in common, and both are strongly influenced by the regional Chinese, Malay and Indian languages. However, they developed differently after gaining independence from Britain. In a post-colonial reaction, Malaysia initially down-graded the teaching of English, and has only more recently given it renewed importance. Singapore, in contrast, chose early to make English its national language (despite having virtually no native speakers), so as to provide a lingua franca and cultural unifying force for its multilingual population. Education in Singapore is entirely English-medium, and as English comes to be more and more a natural part of Singapore life, it may well become the mother tongue of many citizens. More than a third of Singaporeans now use English at home.

In Singapore and Malaysian English, as in others world-wide, there is considerable variation arising from differences in education and social position. Some members of the urban middle class are virtually bilingual, with a native-speaker-like level of fluency and accuracy, while other English speakers have only a basic command of the language. The context of use also plays a part. Singapore English, for instance, has a ‘high’ variety, closer to a British standard, which is used in formal situations; this contrasts with the ‘low’ informal variety called ‘Singlish’. The choice between ‘high’ and ‘low’ varieties does not necessarily depend on language proficiency – even accomplished speakers of standard Singapore English use Singlish when they feel that the situation calls for it, as Singlish functions as a marker of Singaporean identity.

Singapore/Malaysian vocabulary includes many local words and expressions, such as hand phone (mobile phone) and void deck (the ground floor of a block of flats, left vacant to be hired out for communal activities). Many words are imported from the regional languages: for example makan (food, eating), rakyat (the common people, an ordinary citizen). Typical grammatical differences from standard English, found in many speakers’ usage, include many common ‘learner-English’ features; for instance the complex English modal verb system is often reduced to two elements: can and must. Spoken discourse particles include the very common lah, which perhaps originates from Chinese and is used as a marker of informal intimacy.

  • We eat here yesterday.
  • This coffee house very cheap.
  • You got car or not?
  • Can or not? (= Is this possible?)
  • She call you, is it?
  • Can be that Ahmed calling. (= That will be Ahmed calling.)
  • Please lah call me soon.

Pronunciation varies considerably, depending on the speaker’s mother tongue. At the higher end of the social-educational spectrum, speech is strongly influenced by the British standard, though with a tendency to give syllables equal weight as against British stress-timed rhythm (see here).

English as a lingua franca (‘ELF’)​

A lingua franca is a language used for communication between speakers of different mother tongues. The name ‘lingua franca’ itself was originally applied to a mixed language used for trade in the Eastern Mediterranean from the 11th to the 19th centuries. Many other languages have served as lingua francas at different times in different parts of the world, for instance Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Russian, Arabic, Swahili and Chinese. English is now the world’s major lingua franca, and, unlike earlier lingua francas, has no geographical boundaries.

Like other languages which are adopted for international use, lingua franca English varies very widely from one speaker to another, depending on its users’ command of the language; it also tends to be heavily influenced in its pronunciation and grammar by the speakers’ mother tongues. The variation is of course limited by the need for effective communication, so that speakers will try to accommodate their English to make it more comprehensible to those who need to understand them. And, like most second-language speakers, lingua franca users worldwide tend to make the kind of common simplifications and regularisations illustrated in (see here) above. So, despite very large individual differences, much lingua franca English has some shared characteristics. Some of these are regional. European kinds of ELF often resemble each other (reflecting mother-tongue similarities in grammar or pronunciation) in ways that distinguish them from, say, typical East Asian, South Asian or African lingua franca types of English.

Similarities in lingua franca use, and the term ‘English as a lingua franca’ itself, can lead people to suppose that there is a distinct variety of English, ‘ELF’, that can be analysed and described in the same way as, say, Australian or Indian English. This is not, however, the case: lingua franca versions of English differ far too much to constitute a consistent variety. The term ‘English as a lingua franca’ therefore only refers to a process, the use of English for international communication, not to a non-existent form of English that has arisen for this purpose.