Discourse markers in speech
Discourse markers are words and expressions which help to structure spoken exchanges and written text. (e.g. first of all, by the way, on the other hand, in any case, to sum up). English has a very large number of these. Some are used in all kinds of discourse, some mostly in formal writing, and others mainly in informal speech. Those that are most common in speech are discussed here; some of these (but not all) are also used in formal writing, (see here). Discourse markers can communicate several things:
- ‘What are we talking about?’ They can introduce or clarify a topic, and show divisions and changes of topic.
- ‘What are we doing?’ They can show the type of communication that is going on.
- attitude They can show a speaker’s attitude to what he or she is saying, or to the listener’s expectations.
What are we talking about?
Some discourse markers say what a speaker is going to focus on, and may show a link with previous discussion. Others show subdivisions and changes of topic.
focusing
talking/speaking of/about; regarding; as regards; as far as … is/are concerned; as for
- ‘I saw Max and Emma today. You know she –’ ‘Talking of Max, you know he’s leaving?’
- And speaking of Australia, did you see that documentary …?
- Regarding that car you were thinking of selling – how much do you want for it?
- As far as the kids are concerned, let’s ask them what they think.
- As for that business of going to the police, I’m sorry I mentioned it.
- I’ve invited Andy and Joseph. As for Joshua, I never want to see him again.
subdividing
first; firstly; first of all; in the first place; to start with; for one thing; and then
- I don’t think I can help you. First(ly) / First of all / For one thing / In the first place, I haven’t got the time. And then I’m going to be away all next week.
- To start with, let me remind you that I’m the one who’s paying for all this.
brief change of subject
incidentally; by the way
- I was talking to Annie yesterday. Incidentally / By the way, did you know she’s got a new job? And she said that Jake told her …
returning to previous subject
as I was saying
- … on the roof – Jeremy, put the cat down, please. As I was saying, if Jack gets up on the roof and looks at the tiles …
introducing a new subject (for example in lectures)
now; all right; right; OK
- OK. Now a word about iron oxide. There’s two basic types …
- Any questions? Right, let’s have a word about tomorrow’s arrangements.
summing up
all in all; in a word
- And the car broke down. And Jodie got mugged. And then Sophie was ill. All in all, it wasn’t the best trip we’ve had.
- He gets up at midday. He won’t look for a job. He doesn’t help around the house. In a word, he’s bone idle.
What are we doing?
Some discourse markers make it clear what kind of communication is going on.
generalising
on the whole; to some extent; in general; in all/most/many/some cases; broadly speaking
- On the whole / In general, people like to help others.
- ‘Do you think TV is bad for kids?’ ‘Well, in some cases, maybe.’
- To some extent, it’s an interesting job. But there are some pretty dull patches.
- Broadly speaking, I get on pretty well with people.
exceptions
apart from; except for
- I’ll eat anything, apart from / except for chillies.
making contrasting points
still; all the same; even so; mind you; on the other hand; but; yet; however; in spite of this/that
- I’m glad to have a place of my own. OK, it’s a long way from the centre, and it needs redecorating. Still, it’s home.
- I was a bit bored and lonely, yes, but I had a reasonably pleasant time all the same.
- Jenkins wasn’t on top form. Even so, he got two goals.
- Bankers are generally nice people. Mind you, I wouldn’t want my daughter to marry one.
- She can be really irritating. On the other hand, she’s got a heart of gold.
- OK, we’ve got to cut down expenses. But we can’t get rid of the car.
- He’s 85. Yet he still takes care of the farm.
- I’ll do a lot for my family. However, there are limits.
- The train was two hours late. In spite of that, we got to the match on time.
contradicting
on the contrary; quite the opposite
- I don’t dislike him at all. On the contrary / Quite the opposite, I’m very fond of him.
showing a logical or causal connection
so; then (see here)
- They didn’t think I had enough experience, so I didn’t get the job.
- ‘I don’t like this stew.’ ‘Then/So don’t eat it.’’
persuading
after all (see here); look at it this way; look; question tags (see here); negative questions (see here)
- Why shouldn’t she buy a horse if she wants to? After all, it’s her money.
- Look at it this way. Suppose you were in the same position as me. How would you feel?
- We can’t go to the gym now. Look, they close in an hour.
- You’re taking this too seriously, aren’t you?
- It’s a bit expensive, don’t you think?
adding
also; on top of that; as well as that; another thing is; besides; I mean (see here)
- I don’t like his attitude. Also, I don’t believe he’s actually got the qualifications he says he has.
- They’re cutting unemployment benefits. And on top of that, they’re putting up VAT.
- The place is close to the sea. And another thing is, the people are really friendly.
- I don’t like her going out alone at night. You don’t know what sort of people she’s going to meet. And besides / I mean, she’s far too young.
giving examples
in particular; for instance; for example
- I’d like to have time to talk to some of the others. In particular, I want to find out what Joshua thinks.
- We could invite some of the neighbours, for instance / for example, Jess and Simon.
For other uses of still, (see here).
For a comparison of on the contrary and on the other hand, (see here).
Attitude
Some discourse markers express the speaker’s attitude to what he/she is saying, or modify what is being said to make the communication more effective.
showing speaker’s attitude
no doubt; honestly; frankly
- No doubt you will be paying your rent by the end of the week, Mr Jenkins? (No doubt is often ironic: the speaker may not be at all sure of Mr Jenkins’ intentions.)
- Honestly, I think your poetry is remarkable.
- ‘What do you think of my hair?’ ‘Frankly, darling, it’s a disaster.’
making things clear
that is to say; in other words; I mean; I guess
- There’s a problem about tomorrow. That is to say, I don’t think we can come.
- I’ve got a funny feeling about him. In other words / I mean, I don’t trust him.
- I guess, looking back on it, I was her toy boy.
softening and correcting
in my view/opinion; apparently; so to speak; that is to say; more or less; I think/feel/suppose/reckon/guess; sort of; kind of; really; well, at least; I’m afraid (see here); actually (see here); or rather; I mean
- A lot of people say he’s a bad manager. In my view / opinion, he’s OK.
- ‘I’ve heard there’s been a fire at the office.’ ‘Yes, apparently so.’
- Dan’s the family conscience, so to speak. He’s always telling us what’s right.
- Leave me out. That is to say / I mean, I’m not sure your plan will work.
- ‘Are you still looking for work?’ ‘Yes. Well, sort of, more or less.’
- He’s not always very good at organising his life. At least, that’s my impression.
- ‘I sort of wondered if you could help me with this.’ ‘Sorry, I’m afraid I’m not free.’
- I can’t get to the hospital to see Julie. I mean, not this week, anyway.
- She lives at 19 Gordon Terrace – or rather, Gordon Close. (not
… or better …) - My brother didn’t do well at school, though actually, he did get a prize for art.
dismissing what was said before
in any case; anyhow; anyway; at any rate
These expressions mean ‘What was said before doesn’t matter – this is the real point.’
- Maybe it was Daniel, or maybe it was Joe. Or Jack. Anyway, it was one of them.
- I can’t get to the hospital to see Julie. I mean, not this week, anyhow.
- The hotel’s probably OK. It’s cheap, and the place seems clean. At any rate, it’s better than sleeping in the car.
- I’m not sure what time I’ll arrive, maybe seven or eight. In any case, I’ll certainly be there before 8.30.
referring to the hearer’s expectations
in fact; actually; as a matter of fact; to tell the truth; well; actually
These expressions introduce information that will contradict (usually) or perhaps confirm what the hearer or reader thinks.
- ‘So what do you think?’ ‘To tell the truth, I wasn’t really listening to what everyone was saying.’
- ‘How are your medical studies going?’ ‘As a matter of fact, I’ve decided to drop out for a year and get a job.’
- ‘Hello, Adrian.’ ‘Actually, my name’s Richard.’
- ‘Was the skiing good?’ ‘Yes, actually, it was wonderful.’
- ‘How did the team do?’ ‘Well, they lost.’
gaining time
let me see; let’s see; let me think; well; you know; I don’t know; I mean; kind of; sort of
- ‘How much is it going to cost?’ ‘Let me see. There’s materials. And transport. And …’
- ‘When can you pay me back?’ ‘Well, you know, let me think, I don’t know, I mean, things are kind of tight just now, …’
checking common ground
you know; (you) know what I mean?; of course (see here); you see
A speaker says ‘you know’ to tell the hearer (or to pretend) that they share the same piece of information.
- I was talking to Marty – you know, the guy who works with Alex – and he thinks we can …
- We were in Haworth – you know, the village where the Brontës lived. And …
- He never called her. Because unattractive men don’t want unattractive girls; (you) know what I mean?
Of course implies that everybody knows something (and can be used to make the hearer feel inferior for not knowing it!).
- It’s a lovely piece, isn’t it? Of course, it was originally written for violin and piano, …
You see introduces information that the speaker thinks the hearer does not share.
- It’s no good using this battery charger. You see, it’s 12 volts, and your battery is 6 volts.
- I’m sorry, but you can’t come in here. You see, it’s for members only.