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Relatives: advanced points

Double use of relative pronouns​

Note that relative pronouns have a double use. They act as subjects or objects inside relative clauses, and at the same time they connect relative clauses to nouns or pronouns in other clauses – rather like conjunctions.

Relative pronouns as general-purpose connectors​

In non-identifying clauses, the pronouns who and which sometimes act as general-purpose connecting words, rather like and + pronoun.

  • She passed the bill to Moriarty, who passed it on to me. (= … and he passed it on …)
  • I dropped the saucepan, which knocked over the eggs, which went all over the floor. (= … and it knocked … and they went …)
  • I do a lot of walking, which keeps me fit. (= … and this keeps me fit.)

who and whom​

Who can be used as an object in identifying clauses in an informal style. Whom is more formal.

  • The woman who I marry will have a good sense of humour. (More formal: The woman whom I marry …)

In non-identifying clauses, who is less common as an object, though it is sometimes used in an informal style.

  • In that year he met Rachel, whom he was later to marry. (or … Rachel, who he was later to marry. – informal)

An unsatisfactory rule​

Some American style guides say that it is wrong to use which in identifying (‘restrictive’) clauses. So for example, instead of

  • The changes which the directors proposed were not accepted.

one is supposed to say or write

  • The changes that the directors proposed were not accepted.

This is a prescriptive rule (see here) which does not reflect linguistic reality: which is in fact normal and correct in identifying clauses. However, the rule has a strong influence on American usage and judgements of correctness, and students in the USA might be expected to follow it.

that for people​

That is often used in identifying relative clauses instead of who/whom/which (see here). That is most common as an object, or as a subject instead of which. That can be used as a subject instead of who, but this is quite informal. Compare:

  • the people that I invited (normal)
  • the books that I lent you (normal)
  • the bus that crashed (normal)
  • the people that live next door (informal; the people who … is preferred in a more formal style)

which as determiner; in which case​

Which can be used as a determiner in relative clauses, with a general noun which repeats the meaning of what came before. This structure is rather formal, and is mainly used after prepositions, especially in some fixed phrases like in which case and at which point.

  • She may be late, in which case we ought to wait for her.
  • He lost his temper, at which point I decided to go home.
  • He was appointed Lord Chancellor, in which post he spent the rest of his life.
  • He spoke in Greek, which language I could only follow with difficulty.

when, where, etc replaced by that or dropped​

After common nouns referring to time, when is often replaced by that or dropped in an informal style.

  • Come and see us any time (that) you’re in town.
  • I’ll never forget the day (that) we met.
  • That was the year (that) I first went abroad.

The same thing happens with where after somewhere, anywhere, everywhere, nowhere and place (but not after other words).

  • Have you got somewhere (that) I can lie down for an hour?
  • We need a place (that) we can stay for a few days. (but not We need a house we can stay for a few days.)

After way, in which can be replaced by that or dropped in an informal style.

  • I didn’t like the way (that) she spoke to me.
  • Do you know a way (that) you can earn money without working?

The same thing happens with why after reason.

  • The reason (that) you’re so bad-tempered is that you’re hungry.
note

For more about place, (see here). For way, (see here). For reason, (see here).

Position of prepositions​

Prepositions can come either before relative pronouns (more formal) or at the ends of relative clauses (more informal). Compare:

  • He was respected by the people with whom he worked. (formal)
    He was respected by the people (that) he worked with. (informal)
  • This is the room in which I was born. (formal)
    This is the room (that) I was born in. (informal)

That is not used after prepositions, and who is unusual.

  • … the people with whom he worked. (not … with that he worked; not usually … with who he worked)
note

For more about prepositions at the ends of clauses, (see here).

some of whom, none of which, etc​

In non-identifying clauses, quantifying determiners (e.g. some, any, none, all, both, several, enough, many, few) can be used with of whom, of which and of whose. The determiner most often comes before of which/whom/whose, but can sometimes come after it in a very formal style.

  • They picked up five boat-loads of refugees, some of whom had been at sea for several months. (or … of whom some …)
  • We’ve tested three hundred types of boot, none of which is completely waterproof. (or … of which none …)
  • They’ve got eight children, all of whom are studying music. (or … of whom all are studying …)
  • She had a teddy bear, both of whose eyes were missing.

This structure is also possible with other expressions of quantity, with superlatives, with first, second, etc, and with last.

  • a number of whom
  • the majority of whom
  • three of which
  • the youngest of whom
  • half of which
  • the last of which

whatever, whoever, etc​

Whatever can be used rather like what, as noun + relative pronoun together.

  • Take whatever you want. (= … anything that you want.)

Other words that can be used like this are whoever, whichever, where, wherever, when, whenever and how.

  • This is for whoever wants it. (= … any person that wants it.)
  • I often think about where I met you. (= … the place where …)
  • We’ve bought a cottage in the country for when we retire. (= … the time when …)
  • Whenever you want to come is fine with me. (= Any day that …)
  • Look at how he treats me. (= … the way in which …)
note

For details of the use of whoever, whatever and other words ending in -ever, (see here).

For more about how-clauses, (see here).

Reduced relative clauses: the girl dancing​

A participle is often used instead of a relative pronoun and full verb.

  • Who’s the girl dancing with your brother? (= … that is dancing with your brother?)
  • Anyone touching that wire will get a shock. (= … who touches …)
  • Half of the people invited to the party didn’t turn up. (= … who were invited …)
  • I found him sitting at a table covered with papers. (= … which was covered with papers.)

Reduced structures are also used with the adjectives available and possible.

  • Please send me all the tickets available. (= … that are available.)
  • Tuesday’s the only date possible.

Separating a noun from its relative pronoun​

Relative pronouns usually follow their nouns directly.

  • The idea which she put forward was interesting. (not The idea was interesting which she put forward.)
  • I called in Mrs Spencer, who did our accounts. (not I called Mrs Spencer in, who did our accounts.)

However, a descriptive phrase can sometimes separate a noun from its relative pronoun.

  • I called in Mrs Spencer, the Manager’s secretary, who did our accounts.

Agreement of person​

Most relative clauses have third-person reference; I who …, you who … and we who … are unusual, though they sometimes occur in a very formal style.

A different kind of first- and second-person reference is common in the relative clauses of cleft sentences (see here). However, the verb is usually third-person, especially in an informal style.

  • It’s me that’s responsible for the organisation. (More formal: It is I who am responsible … )
  • You’re the one that knows where to go. (not … the one that know …)

Relative + infinitive: a garden in which to play​

When a noun or pronoun is the object of a following infinitive, a relative pronoun is not normally used.

  • I can’t think of anybody to invite. (not … anybody whom to invite.)

However, relative pronouns are possible with preposition structures.

  • We moved to the country so that the children would have a garden in which to play.
  • He was miserable unless he had neighbours with whom to quarrel.

This structure is rather formal, and it is more common to use infinitive + preposition without a relative pronoun.

  • … so that the children would have a garden to play in. (not … which to play in.)
  • … unless he had neighbours to quarrel with. (not … whom to quarrel with.)

Relative clauses after indefinite noun phrases​

The distinction between identifying and non-identifying clauses (see here) is most clear when they modify definite noun phrases like the car, this house, my father, Mrs Lewis. After indefinite noun phrases like a car, some nurses or friends, the distinction is less clear, and both kinds of clause are often possible with slight differences of emphasis.

  • He’s got a new car that goes like a bomb. (or He’s got a new car, which goes like a bomb.)
  • We became friendly with some nurses that Jack had met in Paris. (or We became friendly with some nurses, whom Jack had met in Paris.)

In general, identifying clauses are used when the information they give is felt to be centrally important to the overall message. When this is not so, non-identifying clauses are preferred.

It was Alice who …; What I need is …​

Relative clauses (including what-clauses) are used to structure ‘cleft sentences’: (see here) for details.

  • It was Alice who called the police.
  • What I need is a long rest.

somebody I know you’ll like​

It is often possible to combine relative clauses with indirect statements and similar structures, e.g. I know/said/feel/hope/wish (that) …, especially in an informal style. Expressions like I know, I said, etc come after the position of the relative pronoun.

  • We’re going to meet somebody (who/that) I know (that) you’ll like.
  • It’s a house (which/that) we feel (that) we might want to buy.
  • That’s the man (who/that) I wish (that) I’d married.

Note that the conjunction (the second that) is usually dropped in this structure; it must be dropped if the relative pronoun is a subject.

  • This is the woman (who/that) Anna said could show us the church. (not This is the woman (who/that) Anna said that could show us …)

In this structure, people sometimes use whom as a subject pronoun. This is not generally considered correct.

  • This is a letter from my father, whom we hope will be fully recovered soon. (More correct: … who we hope will be …)

Relative clauses can also be combined with if-clauses in sentences like the following.

  • I am enclosing an application form, which I should be grateful if you would sign and return.

a car that I didn’t know how fast it could go, etc​

We do not usually combine a relative clause with an indirect question structure. However, this sometimes happens in informal speech.

  • I’ve just been to see an old friend that I’m not sure when I’m going to see again.
  • There’s a pile of paperwork that I just don’t know how I’m going to do.

There is no grammatically correct way of doing this when the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause. However, sentences like the following (with added pronouns) are also sometimes heard in informal speech. Some real examples:

  • I was driving a car that I didn’t know how fast it could go.
  • It’s ridiculous to sing songs that you don’t know what they mean.
  • There’s a control at the back that I don’t understand how it works.
  • There’s still one kid that I must find out whether she’s coming to the party or not.

Omission of subject​

In a very informal style, a subject relative pronoun is sometimes dropped after there is.

  • There’s a man at the door wants to talk to you.

Double object​

Occasionally a relative pronoun acts as the object of two verbs. This happens especially when a relative clause is followed by before …ing, after …ing or without …ing.

  • We have water that it’s best not to drink before boiling. (or … boiling it.)
  • I’m sending you a letter that I want you to destroy after reading. (or … after reading it.)
  • He was somebody that you could like without admiring. (or … admiring him.)

Older English: who and that which​

In older English, who could be used in a similar way to what, as noun + relative pronoun together, meaning ‘the person who’, ‘whoever’ or ‘anybody who’. In modern English, this is very unusual.

  • Who steals my purse steals trash. (Shakespeare, Othello) (Modern English: Whoever/Anybody who …)

That which used to be used in the same way as what. This, too, is very unusual in modern English.

  • We have that which we need. (Modern English: We have what we need.)