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Information structure: normal order and variations

Normal order: important new information last​

Most often, a clause or sentence moves from ‘known’ to ‘new’: from low to high information value. So we often choose as the subject a person or thing that is already being talked about or that has already been mentioned, or something that the speaker and hearer are both familiar with, or even some new information that is not the main point of the message. The important new information generally comes at the end of a clause or sentence.

  • ‘How’s Joe these days?’ ‘Oh, fine. He’s just got married to a very nice girl.’ (More natural than … A very nice girl’s just got married to him.)
  • My father was bitten by a dog last week. (More natural than A dog bit my father last week.)
  • Our dog bit somebody this morning. (More natural than Somebody was bitten by our dog this morning.)
  • ‘I can’t find my clothes.’ ‘Well, your shirt’s under my coat.’ (More natural than … My coat’s on your shirt.)

To avoid immediately beginning a clause with a completely new element, we can often use the there is structure. For details, (see here).

  • There’s a cat on the roof. (More natural than A cat’s on the roof.)
note

For ‘known’ and ‘new’ information with as, since and because, (see here).

Choosing the right verb​

We can often get the most suitable subject by choosing the right verb. Compare:

  • The furniture factory employs 7,000 people.
    7,000 people work for the furniture factory.
  • He led the children through the silent streets.
    The children followed him through the silent streets.

Choosing the right structure​

In many situations, there is an ‘agent’ (the person or thing who does something) and a ‘patient’ (the person or thing that something is done to). If we want to make the agent the subject, we can usually do this by choosing an active verb form (see here).

  • The gale blew Charlotte’s roof off.
  • Somebody’s dropped ketchup all over the floor.

If we want to make the patient the subject, we can usually do this by choosing a passive verb form (see here).

  • Charlotte’s roof was blown off by the gale.
  • Ketchup has been dropped all over the floor.

If we want to make something else the subject, we can often do this by using a structure with have + object + past participle (see here).

  • Charlotte had her roof blown off by the gale.
  • The floor has had ketchup dropped all over it.

Structures with have are often used to ‘personalise’ a situation by making a person the subject.

  • I’ve got the house full of children. (instead of The house is full of children. OR There are children all over the house.)

End-weight: It worried me that she hadn’t been in touch.​

Longer and heavier structures usually come last in a clause or sentence. (These usually have the highest ‘information-value’ in any case.)

  • Children are sometimes discouraged by the length of time it takes to learn a musical instrument. (More natural than The length of time it takes to learn a musical instrument sometimes discourages children.)

Because of this, we often use a structure with ‘preparatory it’ in order to move a clause subject or object to the end of a sentence. For details, (see here).

  • It worried me that she hadn’t been in touch for so long. (More natural than That she hadn’t been in touch for so long worried me.)
  • It’s important to tell us everything you know. (More natural than To tell us everything you know is important.)
  • He made it clear that he was not in the least interested. (not He made that he was not in the least interested clear.)

Adverbials do not normally separate the verb from the object in an English clause (see here). However, a very long and heavy object may come after a shorter adverbial. Compare:

  • She plays the violin very well (not She plays very well the violin.)
  • She plays very well almost any instrument that you can think of and several that you can’t.

End-weight can also affect the word order of indirect questions. Compare:

  • I’m not sure what the point is.
  • I’m not sure what is the point of spending hours and hours discussing this.

Changing the order: inversion and fronting​

If we move to the end of a sentence something that does not normally belong there, this can draw extra attention to it. Fronting ( (see here), (see here) has this effect.

  • This question we have already discussed.
  • People like that I just can’t stand.
  • He’s a funny guy, old Fred.

Inversion (putting the verb before the subject: (see here) is not only used for forming questions. It can also help to structure the flow of information.

  • Along the road came a strange procession. (highlighting ‘a strange procession’)

Separating out what is important: cleft sentences​

Cleft sentences ( (see here) separate out one part of a clause for special attention and put it at the beginning or end. The rest is moved into the background, in a relative clause.

  • It was your child who broke the window. (highlighting ‘your child’)
  • What I need is a good rest. (highlighting ‘a good rest’)

Dropping what is unimportant: ellipses​

If we leave out unnecessary words, this puts more emphasis on the rest, helping to show what is important. This can happen in various ways in speech and writing, (see here).