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Ellipsis (leaving words out): introduction

We often leave out words to avoid repetition, or in other cases when the meaning can be understood without them. This is called ‘ellipsis’.

Replies​

In replies we usually avoid repeating information that has just been given.

  • ‘What time are you coming?’ ‘About ten.’ (More likely than ‘I’m coming about ten’.)
  • ‘Who said that?’ ‘Jack.’ (More likely than ‘Jack said that’.)
  • ‘How many chairs do you need?’ ‘Three.’ (More likely than ‘I need three chairs’.)
  • ‘She’s out this evening?’ ‘Yes, working.’ (More likely than ‘Yes, she’s working this evening’.)

Structures with and, but and or​

Repeated words are often dropped in co-ordinate structures (see here).

  • a knife and fork (= a knife and a fork)
  • She was poor but happy. (= … but she was happy.)

At the beginning of a sentence​

In informal speech, unstressed words are often dropped at the beginning of a sentence, if the meaning is clear. For details, (see here).

  • Seen Lucy? (= Have you seen Lucy?)
  • Doesn’t know what she’s talking about. (= She doesn’t …)

At the end of a noun phrase​

It is sometimes possible to drop nouns after adjectives, noun modifiers and/or determiners. For details, (see here).

  • ‘Do you want large eggs?’ ‘No, I’ll have small.’ (= … small eggs.)
  • My car isn’t working. I’ll have to use Emily’s. (= … Emily’s car.)
  • We’re going to hear the London Philharmonic tonight. (= … the London Philharmonic Orchestra.)
  • ‘Which shoes are you going to wear?’ ‘These.’ (= These shoes.)

At the end of a verb phrase​

Auxiliary verbs are often used alone instead of full verbs. For details, (see here).

  • ‘I haven’t paid.’ ‘I haven’t either.’ (= … I haven’t paid either.)
  • She said she’d phone, but she didn’t. (= … didn’t phone.)

This type of ellipsis can include complements that follow the verb.

  • I was planning to go to Paris next week, but I can’t. (= … I can’t go to Paris next week.)

The same structures are possible with non-auxiliary be and have.

  • I thought she would be angry, and she was.
  • He says he hasn’t any friends, but I know he has.

Infinitives​

We can use to instead of repeating a whole infinitive. For details, (see here).

  • ‘Are you and Gillian getting married?’ ‘We hope to.’ (= We hope to get married.)
  • I don’t dance much now, but I used to a lot.

Sometimes a whole infinitive, including to, is left out.

  • Come when you want. (= … when you want to come.)
  • ‘Have a good time.’ ‘I’ll try.’ (= I’ll try to have a good time.)

Comparative structures with as and than​

We can leave out words after as and than, if the meaning is clear.

  • The weather isn’t as good as last year. (= … as it was last year.)
  • I found more blackberries than you. (= … than you found.)
note

For missing subject or object after as and than (e.g. as was expected), (see here).

Question-word clauses​

Clauses can be dropped after question words.

  • Somebody has been stealing our flowers, but I don’t know who. (= … I don’t know who has been stealing our flowers.)
  • Become a successful writer. This book shows you how.

that and relative pronouns​

In an informal style, the conjunction that is often dropped (see here); object relative pronouns can also be dropped (see here).

  • I knew (that) she didn’t want to help me.
  • This is the restaurant (which) I was talking about.

Reduced relative structures: the tickets available, etc​

We can sometimes leave out a relative pronoun and the verb be before participles, or adjectives such as available, possible. For details, (see here).

  • Who’s the girl dancing with your brother? (= … who is dancing …)
  • It will not be possible to finish the job in the time available. (= … that is available.)

be after conjunctions​

Subject pronouns with forms of be can be left out after certain conjunctions, especially in a formal style.

  • Start when ready. (= … when you are ready.)
  • Though intelligent, he was very poorly educated. (= Though he was intelligent …)
  • When ordering, please send £1.50 for postage and packing.
  • Phone me if (it is) necessary.
  • He had a small heart attack while asleep.
  • I’m enclosing the signed contract, as agreed.
  • Leave in oven until browned on top.

Prepositions​

In an informal style, prepositions can be dropped in a few time expressions ( (see here).

  • See you (on) Monday night.
  • We’re staying here (for) another three months.
  • What time shall I come? (More natural than At what time …?)
note

For cases like We need a place to live (in), (see here).

Pronouns after prepositions​

In British English, pronoun objects can sometimes be dropped after prepositions. This happens, for example, when have or with are used in descriptive structures.

  • My socks have got holes in (them).
  • I’d like a piece of toast with butter on (it).

Abbreviated styles​

In certain styles, many or all non-essential words can be dropped. For details, (see here).

  • Take 500g butter and place in small saucepan.
  • Single man looking for flat Oxford area.
  • DOG FINDS ROMAN TREASURE