Participles: -ing and -ed forms used like adjectives

Names

When -ing forms are used in similar ways to adjectives, they are called ‘present participles’. Forms like broken, sung, opened, started are called ‘past participles’. But note that both forms can be used for the past, present or future.

• We were nearly hit by falling rocks.
• We haven’t got a single working computer in the office.
• The house is going to be full of screaming children.
• I was taken to hospital with a broken arm.
• These cakes are beautifully cooked.
• Daniel will be surprised to see you.

(The same terms are used when these forms are used as parts of verb tenses, see Verbs.)

Active and passive

When -ing forms are used like adjectives, they have similar meanings to active verbs.

• falling leaves (= leaves that fall)
• a meat-eating animal (= an animal that eats meat)

Most past participles have passive meanings when they are used like adjectives.

• a broken heart (= a heart that has been broken)
• The house looked abandoned. (= … as if it had been abandoned.)

Participles and adjectives: interested and interesting, etc

Some adjectives look like present or past participles (and the difference between adjectives and participles is not always clear). They are discussed here for convenience. These adjectives, too, may have an active/passive contrast. For example, interesting, boring, exciting and confusing have active meanings: they describe things that interest people, bore them and so on. Interested, bored, etc have passive meanings: they show how people are made to feel. Compare:

• The lesson was really interesting.
  I was very interested in the lesson. (not I was very interesting in the lesson.)
• It was a terribly boring party.
  I didn’t enjoy the party because I was bored. (not … because I was boring.)
• Granny takes the kids to exciting places.
  The kids get excited when Granny comes. (not … The kids get exciting …)
• He’s a very confusing writer.
  She explained everything, but I was still very confused. (not … very confusing.)

Active past participles: a fallen leaf; advanced students

Some past participles can be used as adjectives with active meanings before nouns.

• a fallen leaf (= a leaf that has fallen)
• advanced students
• developed countries
• increased activity
• vanished civilisations
• a retired general
• a collapsed building
• a grown-up daughter
• an escaped prisoner
• faded colours
• swollen ankles

Most of these can be used after be.

• She is retired now.
• My family are all grown up.
• Those curtains are badly faded.
• This class is the most advanced.
• My wrist is swollen.

Some others are used after be, but not before nouns.

• Why are all those cars stopped at the crossroads? (but not … a stopped car)
• I hope you’re fully recovered from your operation.
• We’re camped in the field across the stream.
• I’ll be finished in a few minutes.
• Those days are gone now.

Sat and stood are often used like this in informal speech in British English.

• When I saw her she was sat on the ground crying.
• Why is that man stood in the doorway?

A few past participles are used with active meanings in expressions with adverbials but not otherwise.

• a well-read person (but not a read person)
• a much-travelled man
• recently-arrived immigrants
• The train just arrived at platform six is the delayed 13.15 from Hereford.

Compound structures: English-speaking Canadians

Participles used as adjectives can have objects. Note the word order.

• English-speaking Canadians. (not speaking-English Canadians.)
• a fox-hunting man
• Is that watch self-winding?

Other compound structures with participles are also common before nouns.

• quick-growing trees
• home-made cake
• a recently-built house
• government-inspired rumours
• the above-mentioned point

After nouns: the people questioned

We often use participles after nouns in order to define or identify the nouns, in the same way as we use identifying relative clauses (see here).

• We couldn’t agree on any of the problems discussed. (= … the problems that were discussed.) (not … the discussed problems.)
• The people questioned gave very different opinions. (= The people who were questioned …) (not The questioned people …)
• I watched the match because I knew some of the people playing. (not … the playing people.)
• I got the only ticket left. (not … the only left ticket.)

Those is often used with a participle to mean ‘the ones who are/were’.

• Most of those questioned refused to answer.
• Those selected will begin training on Monday.

Differences of meaning

A few participles change their meaning according to their position. Compare:

• a concerned expression (= a worried expression)
  the people concerned (= the people who are/were affected)
• an involved explanation (= a complicated explanation)
  the people involved (= the same as the people concerned)
• an adopted child (= a child who is brought up by people who are not his/her biological parents)
  the solution adopted (= the solution that is/was chosen)

much admired; very frightened

When a past participle is part of a passive verb, we can put much or very much before it, but not very.

• He’s (very) much admired by his students. (not … very admired …)
• Britain’s trade position has been (very) much weakened by inflation. (not … very weakened …)

When a past participle is used as an adjective, we usually prefer very. This is common with words referring to mental states, feelings and reactions.

• a very frightened animal (not a much frightened animal)
• a very shocked expression
• The children were very bored.
• She looked very surprised.

Common exceptions:

• That’s Alice, unless I’m (very) much mistaken. (not … unless I’m very mistaken.)
• He’s well known in the art world. (not … very known …)

With amused, very and (very) much are both possible.

• I was very amused / much amused / very much amused by Miranda’s performance.

frightened by / frightened of

By is used after passive verbs to introduce the agent (the person or thing that does the action, (see here).

• Most of the damage was caused by your sister.

After past participles that are used like adjectives, we prefer other prepositions. Compare:

• She was frightened by a mouse that ran into the room. (Frightened is part of a passive verb referring to an action.)
  She’s always been terribly frightened of dying. (Frightened is an adjective referring to a state of mind.)
• The kids were so excited by the music that they kept screaming.
  Joe’s excited about the possibility of going to the States.
• I was annoyed by the way she spoke to me.
  I’m annoyed with you.
• The burglar was surprised by the family coming home unexpectedly.
  I’m surprised at/by your attitude.
• He was badly shocked by his fall.
  We were shocked at/by the prices in London.

Other examples:

• His whereabouts are known to the police.
• The hills are covered in snow.
• The room was filled with thick smoke.

Special past participle forms: drunken laughter

A few older forms of past participles are still used as adjectives before nouns in certain expressions.

• drunken laughter/singing, etc
• a shrunken head
• a sunken wreck/ship, etc
• rotten fruit/vegetables, etc