Introduction

A sentence can have more than one clause, usually joined by a conjunction which shows the relationship between them.

• We brought the food and they supplied the drink. (addition)
• She was poor but she was happy. (contrast)
• We can go swimming, or we could stay here. (alternative)
• People disliked her because she was so rude. (cause)
• I’ll phone you when I arrive. (time)

Subordinate clauses

One clause can be subordinate to another. A subordinate clause with its conjunction is a part of the other (main) clause – for example an object or an adverbial. For practical purposes, subordinate clauses can be divided into three main groups: noun clauses, adverbial clauses and adjective (relative) clauses.

Noun clauses function rather like noun phrases:

• I told them a lie.
• I told them that I knew nothing about it.

Adverbial clauses function rather like adverbials:

• We drove home at high speed.
• We drove home as fast as we could.

Relative clauses function rather like adjectives in noun phrases:

• She told me a funny story.
• She told me a story that made me laugh out loud.

Examples of subordinating conjunctions: when, after, how, that.

Some conjunctions are made up of two or more words, for example as soon as, in case.

Co-ordinate clauses

Co-ordinate clauses have equal weight: neither is subordinate to the other.

• Dan cooked supper and Joe washed the dishes.
• The forecast was impressive but the results were disappointing.

Examples of co-ordinating conjunctions: and, but, either … or.

No conjunction

Participles and infinitives can begin clauses (Infinitives, -ing forms and past participles: other uses). These are normally connected to other clauses with no conjunction.

• I rushed out of the house, slamming the door behind me.
• He went up to his room, to find a dog asleep on his bed.

This Section covers co-ordination (of phrases as well as clauses), and some general points to do with subordination. Particular types of subordinate clause are dealt with in if section, Other adverbial clause, Noun clauses, direct and indirect speech, Information structure.

Do you know what’s wrong with these, and why?

Could I have some butter and bread? (see here)

He doesn’t smoke and drink. (see here)

He doesn’t smoke nor drink. (see here)

The project was not successful in political terms and in economic terms. (see here)

Jack isn’t here neither. (see here)

Both he can borrow the flat and he can use the car. (see here)

Neither he smiled nor he spoke. (see here)

She was depressed because didn’t know what to do. (see here)

Although she was tired but she went to work. (see here)

As you know, that I work very hard. (see here)

You’ll find Coca-Cola wherever you will go. (see here)

If I had lots of money, I would give some to anybody who would ask for it. (see here)