📄️ Apostrophe (’)
Apostrophe to show two words have been connected (contraction)
📄️ Apposition
When we use two noun phrases (np) next to each other in a clause, and they refer to the same person or thing, we call this apposition:
📄️ Contractions
We use contractions (I’m, we’re) in everyday speech and informal writing. Contractions, which are sometimes called ‘short forms’, commonly combine a pronoun or noun and a verb, or a verb and not, in a shorter form. Contractions are usually not appropriate in formal writing.
📄️ Contrasts
There are several common expressions for making contrasts in English. They include on the one hand … on the other hand, on the contrary, in comparison, by comparison, in contrast, by contrast.
📄️ Dates
Writing the date
📄️ Detached impersonal style
Formal styles are common in English writing. There are many different kinds of formal style, and choice of grammar and vocabulary is important. Formal styles commonly contain few personal pronouns; noun phrases and the passive voice are commonly used. The more formal the style, the more likely it is that it will appear detached and impersonal.
📄️ Internet discourse and text messages
We commonly communicate by means of emails or by sending texts on mobile phones and other small devices. This type of communication is normally informal, and the messages are often written very quickly.
📄️ It, this and that in paragraphs
We use it, this and that to introduce further information about a topic already mentioned. However, the words have different uses.
📄️ Paragraphs
We organise what we write into sentences and paragraphs. A paragraph begins on a new line within the text and there is often a blank line between paragraphs. A paragraph usually contains more than one sentence and it is usually about one topic.
📄️ Punctuation
The most common punctuation marks in English are: capital letters and full stops, question marks, commas, colons and semi-colons, exclamation marks and quotation marks.
📄️ Speech into writing
Both speech and writing can be formal or informal. Whether language is formal or informal depends on who our readers and listeners are, for what purpose we use the language and the situation in which we use it. For example, an official notice would be written in formal English, whereas the same information would be more commonly written informally by an individual in a less public situation:
📄️ Spelling
Words in English are not always spelled as they are pronounced. Spelling in English follows some basic rules and the majority of English words (around 75%) follow these rules. You can learn the rules but there are always exceptions to the rules that need to be learned too.
📄️ Such as
We can use such as to introduce an example or examples of something we mention. We normally use a comma before such as when we present a list of examples. Where there is just one example, we don’t need a comma: